"How small, of all that human hearts endure/That part which kings or laws can cause or cure!"
--Oliver Goldsmith/Samuel Johnson, The Traveller, 1764

If I correctly understand the author, I think he is most certaily wrong. The word "endure," however, is ambiguous. Does he mean it broadly in the sense of "experience," or narrowly and negatively in the sense of "suffer." Either way it seems to me untrue, but more so if the former.

"How small, of all that human hearts [suffer]/That part which kings or laws can cause or cure!"

Surely a ruler and his commands can cause great suffering. Many examples come to mind, as this is the rule and not the exception. And if they can cause, they can cure simpy be being removed.

"How small, of all that human hearts [experience]/That part which kings or laws can cause or cure!"

This is an expression of modern invdividualism and the libertarian politics that follows from it. But what if man as a political animal requires political community to be happy? Doesn't the nature of that community -- "kings or laws" -- greatly affect human hearts?

Indeed. It is not just that government's power should be limited, it is also that government's power is inherently limited. Contrary to adolescent "progressives" who look to government whenever any little thing goes wrong, there really is very little of importance that government can do.

Ralph,

Dude, you are spiritually obtuse.

Sincerely,

skeptic

"Dude, you are spiritually obtuse."

I have no idea what this means.

"This is an expression of modern invdividualism and the libertarian politics that follows from it. But what if man as a political animal requires political community to be happy? Doesn't the nature of that community -- "kings or laws" -- greatly affect human hearts?" -Ralph

Certainly man has a inherent desire to interact with other men in a community. Politics is one outlet for this, but I can think of no reason why man requires specifically *political* interaction, as opposed to simply social interaction of many different kinds.

Ralph-- perhaps the reason you don't understand the sentence is because it is true.

Think of the deepest, most urgent, pinching, spiritual sufferings and yearnings... most of these are completely unpolitical, except in those rare cases of totalitarianism.

All the government can do is help set up a stable environment so that individuals can live meaningful lives, but it has very little direct impact on the meaningfulness of persons' lives. This isn't a modern individualism, either, I think. Thomas Aquinas emphasizes that human law has no power (or authority) over one's heart.

That's a harsh criticism, and unfounded I think.

"All the government can do is help set up a stable environment so that individuals can live meaningful lives, but it has very little direct impact on the meaningfulness of persons' lives."

I think government can and ought to do much more than set up a stable environment. Human laws should represent the eternal law by which men are made happy. Happiness through obedience to the eternal law is what gives life meaning.

Ralph: First, I am Christian, not a part of Islam, so I don't think of the meaningful of my life primarily in terms of oberying law. Second, human law cannot implement divine law in such a way that makes the obedience meaningful. The type of obediance to divine law that is such a key part to a good human life is internal, spiritual, and therefore not subject to human rulership.

Bottom Line: The human law governs only physical behaviors, and what the quotation is about is the human heart, that is, spirit.

John 14:15 -- "If you love me, you will keep my commandments."

Summa II, Q95 (Human Law) -- "Man has a natural aptitude for virtue; but the perfection of virtue must be acquired by man by means of some kind of training. ... Now it is difficult to see how man could suffice for himself in the matter of this training: since the perfection of virtue consists chiefly in withdrawing man from undue pleasures, to which above all man is inclined, and especially the young, who are more capable of being trained. Consequently a man needs to receive this training from another, whereby to arrive at the perfection of virtue. ... Since some are found to be depraved, and prone to vice, and not easily amenable to words, it was necessary for such to be restrained from evil by force and fear, in order that, at least, they might desist from evil-doing, and leave others in peace, and that they themselves, by being habituated in this way, might be brought to do willingly what hitherto they did from fear, and thus become virtuous. Now this kind of training, which compels through fear of punishment, is the discipline of laws. Therefore in order that man might have peace and virtue, it was necessary for laws to be framed...."

Summa II, 91: "Since all things subject to Divine providence are ruled and measured by the eternal law, as was stated above; it is evident that all things partake somewhat of the eternal law, in so far as, namely, from its being imprinted on them, they derive their respective inclinations to their proper acts and ends. Now among all others, the rational creature is subject to Divine providence in the most excellent way, in so far as it partakes of a share of providence, by being provident both for itself and for others. Wherefore it has a share of the Eternal Reason, whereby it has a natural inclination to its proper act and end: and this participation of the eternal law in the rational creature is called the natural law."

II, 95: "The force of a law depends on the extent of its justice. Now in human affairs a thing is said to be just, from being right, according to the rule of reason. But the first rule of reason is the law of nature, as is clear from what has been stated above. Consequently every human law has just so much of the nature of law, as it is derived from the law of nature. But if in any point it deflects from the law of nature, it is no longer a law but a perversion of law."

II, 93: "The plan of government is derived by secondary governors from the governor in chief; thus the plan of what is to be done in a state flows from the king's command to his inferior administrators. ... Since then the eternal law is the plan of government in the Chief Governor, all the plans of government in the inferior governors must be derived from the eternal law. But these plans of inferior governors are all other laws besides the eternal law. Therefore all laws, in so far as they partake of right reason, are derived from the eternal law. Hence Augustine says that "in temporal law there is nothing just and lawful, but what man has drawn from the eternal law."

"John 14:15 -- "If you love me, you will keep my commandments."" -Ralph

Do you propose that government can force men to love Christ, in any real way?

"Summa II, Q95 (Human Law) -- "Man has a natural aptitude for virtue; but the perfection of virtue must be acquired by man by means of some kind of training. ... Now it is difficult to see how man could suffice for himself in the matter of this training: since the perfection of virtue consists chiefly in withdrawing man from undue pleasures, to which above all man is inclined, and especially the young, who are more capable of being trained. Consequently a man needs to receive this training from another, whereby to arrive at the perfection of virtue. ... Since some are found to be depraved, and prone to vice, and not easily amenable to words, it was necessary for such to be restrained from evil by force and fear, in order that, at least, they might desist from evil-doing, and leave others in peace, and that they themselves, by being habituated in this way, might be brought to do willingly what hitherto they did from fear, and thus become virtuous. Now this kind of training, which compels through fear of punishment, is the discipline of laws. Therefore in order that man might have peace and virtue, it was necessary for laws to be framed...."" -Ralph

Why should this other be the government? Government is organized force, physical coercion from top to bottom. A poor tool indeed, for molding virtue in men.

"Summa II, 91: "Since all things subject to Divine providence are ruled and measured by the eternal law, as was stated above; it is evident that all things partake somewhat of the eternal law, in so far as, namely, from its being imprinted on them, they derive their respective inclinations to their proper acts and ends. Now among all others, the rational creature is subject to Divine providence in the most excellent way, in so far as it partakes of a share of providence, by being provident both for itself and for others. Wherefore it has a share of the Eternal Reason, whereby it has a natural inclination to its proper act and end: and this participation of the eternal law in the rational creature is called the natural law." -Ralph

Again, making the case that we should obey the law of God is not the same as making the case that government should force men to obey the law of God.

"II, 95: "The force of a law depends on the extent of its justice. Now in human affairs a thing is said to be just, from being right, according to the rule of reason. But the first rule of reason is the law of nature, as is clear from what has been stated above. Consequently every human law has just so much of the nature of law, as it is derived from the law of nature. But if in any point it deflects from the law of nature, it is no longer a law but a perversion of law."" -Ralph

Aquinas here seems to be wisely noting the general refusal of institutions of man, particularly human governments, to remain loyal to to laws of God. We must place our faith in upholding the laws of God in Holy Mother Church, which is beholden to God alone, not in the state, which is beholden to men.

"II, 93: "The plan of government is derived by secondary governors from the governor in chief; thus the plan of what is to be done in a state flows from the king's command to his inferior administrators. ... Since then the eternal law is the plan of government in the Chief Governor, all the plans of government in the inferior governors must be derived from the eternal law. But these plans of inferior governors are all other laws besides the eternal law. Therefore all laws, in so far as they partake of right reason, are derived from the eternal law. Hence Augustine says that "in temporal law there is nothing just and lawful, but what man has drawn from the eternal law."" -Ralph

Another good quote arguing for the fact that the state is disloyal to the laws of God, and hence should not be trusted with enforcing them. Though again, not sure why you quoted it, as it doesn't help your argument, I don't think.

This a great quote from the book "To Be a Jew" by Hayim Donin;

"To accept the yoke of the Kingdom of Heaven is to throw off the yoke of human domination and dictatorship. 'You shall be servants unto Me,' said the Lord, 'and not servants unto My servants.' Man is given a choice. Some think they can pursue a middle road between these two forms of servitude, free of both. Such hopes have invariably proved illusory. If it is not the one, it will invariably be the other."

"Do you propose that government can force men to love Christ, in any real way?"

I do not. Skeptic is attempting to separate obedience to the law of God from matters of the heart, e.g., love. This quotation shows that there is an intimate relationship between love and obedience.

"A poor tool indeed, for molding virtue in men."

Actually, it is a very effective tool. Aquinas, following Aristotle, understands virtue to be a habit. Habits are instilled through repetitive action, and action can be coerced through laws. Thus, "they themselves, by being habituated in this way, might be brought to do willingly what hitherto they did from fear, and thus become virtuous."

"Again, making the case that we should obey the law of God is not the same as making the case that government should force men to obey the law of God."

I disagree.

"Aquinas here seems to be wisely noting the general refusal of institutions of man, particularly human governments, to remain loyal to the laws of God. We must place our faith in upholding the laws of God in Holy Mother Church, which is beholden to God alone, not in the state, which is beholden to men."

According to Aquinas, an unjust "law" (i.e., a law that is contrary to reason, and therefore, contrary to natural and eternal law) is not a law. It does not follow, however, that civil institutions are incapable of legislating just laws, or even that just laws are rare. Rather, he is clearly arguing that human law, that is, civil law is derivative of the eternal law.

"Another good quote arguing for the fact that the state is disloyal to the laws of God, and hence should not be trusted with enforcing them."

It says nothing of the sort. To say that temporal law is just only insofar as it has been drawn from the eternal law is not to deny that a significant portion of temporal law is so drawn. You're misreading the quotation.

The Donin quotation is contrary to Catholic teaching (see the last quotation from the Summa and Sacred Scripture (e.g., Romans 13:1, "Let every person be subordinate to the higher authorities, for there is no authority except from God, and those that exist have been established by God.").

"I do not. Skeptic is attempting to separate obedience to the law of God from matters of the heart, e.g., love. This quotation shows that there is an intimate relationship between love and obedience" -Ralph

Didn't strike me as meaning that, but if that is the case I disagree with him.

"Actually, it is a very effective tool. Aquinas, following Aristotle, understands virtue to be a habit. Habits are instilled through repetitive action, and action can be coerced through laws. Thus, "they themselves, by being habituated in this way, might be brought to do willingly what hitherto they did from fear, and thus become virtuous." -Ralph

The habit they chiefly learn is that to get what you want, you should coerce others.

"I disagree." -Ralph

Okay. Could you elaborate?

"According to Aquinas, an unjust "law" (i.e., a law that is contrary to reason, and therefore, contrary to natural and eternal law) is not a law. It does not follow, however, that civil institutions are incapable of legislating just laws, or even that just laws are rare. Rather, he is clearly arguing that human law, that is, civil law is derivative of the eternal law." -Ralph

I was also not arguing that civil institutions are not capable of legislating just laws, though it often seems that way.

But it certainly doesn't help the argument that civil institutions should be provided with guardianship over the eternal law, to know that they are, unlike the Church, quite fallible in their stewardship.

"It says nothing of the sort. To say that temporal law is just only insofar as it has been drawn from the eternal law is not to deny that a significant portion of temporal law is so drawn. You're misreading the quotation." -Ralph

It implicitly acknowledges that civil institutions are fallible and cannot be relied upon to uphold the eternal law, yes?

From there it becomes much more difficult to defend the stance that we should give them guardianship over it.

"The Donin quotation is contrary to Catholic teaching (see the last quotation from the Summa and Sacred Scripture (e.g., Romans 13:1, "Let every person be subordinate to the higher authorities, for there is no authority except from God, and those that exist have been established by God.")." -Ralph

All rulers rule by the grace of God, this is true. But does this mean that all rulers can be trusted to uphold the eternal law?

This seems a very Anglican viewpoint.

"The habit they chiefly learn is that to get what you want, you should coerce others."

Just as the lesson children take away from corporeal punishment is not that it is permissable to strike someone else, the lesson that lawbreakers who are coerced into obedience learn is not that (unqualified) coercion is permissable. Instead, what they learn is to behave as if they were virtuous, whether they are or not. That behavior, in turn, establishes a habit to behave in the prescribed manner, i.e., it establishes virtue.

Citizens should be coerced into obedience to the temporal law. The alternative is lawlessness. The temporal law derives from the eternal law. Therefore, citizens should be coerced into obedience to the eternal law through being coerced into obedience to the temporal law.

"It implicitly acknowledges that civil institutions are fallible and cannot be relied upon to uphold the eternal law, yes?"

Civil institutions are fallible, but it does not follow that they cannot be relied upon to institute the eternal law. According to Aquinas, the eternal law is given to man in two modes: reason and revelation. The former is natural law, the latter, "divine" law.

Divine law cannot be the basis of temporal or secular law because not all men are believers. For that reason, the Church cannot establish temporal law. Natural law, on the other hand, is the basis of temporal law because every man is rational, and therefore, the natural law is given to all men as such.

Temporal communities, then, establish laws according to reason. And right reason affirms the precepts of the eternal law. Such communities must be relied on to uphold the eternal law because there is no alternative.

Donin's comment presents man with an either/or: either God's authority or man's. This is a false dichotomy. That was my point in quoting Romans.

"Just as the lesson children take away from corporeal punishment is not that it is permissable to strike someone else, the lesson that lawbreakers who are coerced into obedience learn is not that (unqualified) coercion is permissable. Instead, what they learn is to behave as if they were virtuous, whether they are or not. That behavior, in turn, establishes a habit to behave in the prescribed manner, i.e., it establishes virtue." -Ralph

Just doesn't jive with reality as it is. Government begets government. We've seen that for a good few centuries now.

"Citizens should be coerced into obedience to the temporal law. The alternative is lawlessness. The temporal law derives from the eternal law. Therefore, citizens should be coerced into obedience to the eternal law through being coerced into obedience to the temporal law." -Ralph

You'll have to clarify what you mean by the eternal law. There are myriad natural law doctrines.

"Civil institutions are fallible, but it does not follow that they cannot be relied upon to institute the eternal law. According to Aquinas, the eternal law is given to man in two modes: reason and revelation. The former is natural law, the latter, "divine" law." -Ralph

Again, you'll have to clarify exactly what you mean by the natural law.

My position of the eternal and natural laws follows Aquinas's (which, more or less, follows Aristotle's). So, If you'll indulge some relatively long quotations, I'll just quote Aquinas.

Here is Aquinas's definition of eternal law: "A law is nothing else but a dictate of practical reason emanating from the ruler who governs a community. Now it is evident, granted that the world is ruled by Divine Providence, ... that the whole community of the universe is governed by Divine Reason. ... And since the Divine Reason's conception of things is not subject to time but is eternal, ... therefore it is that this kind of law must be called eternal."

Here is Aquinas's definition of natural law: "Wherefore, since all things subject to Divine providence are ruled and measured by the eternal law, as was stated above; it is evident that all things partake somewhat of the eternal law, in so far as, from its being imprinted on them, they derive their respective inclinations to their proper acts and ends. Now among all others, the rational creature is subject to Divine providence in the most excellent way, in so far as it partakes of a share of providence, by being provident both for itself and for others. Wherefore it has a share of the Eternal Reason, whereby it has a natural inclination to its proper act and end: and this participation of the eternal law in the rational creature is called the natural law."

And here is Aquinas's account of the precepts of natural law: "To the natural law belongs everything to which a man is inclined according to his nature. Now each thing is inclined naturally to an operation that is suitable to it according to its form. Wherefore, since the rational soul is the proper form of man, there is in every man a natural inclination to act according to reason: and this is to act according to virtue. Consequently, considered thus, all acts of virtue are prescribed by the natural law: since each one's reason naturally dictates to him to act virtuously."

"Skeptic is attempting to separate obedience to the law of God from matters of the heart, e.g., love." -Ralph

I did what? I think you willfully misread Johnson, and then me.

1) You are trying to reduce Christianity to obeying a law -- let alone a law about external behavior!

2) All your quotations from Thomas are for naught, given that you haven't shown my claim about his view of human law, as governing external behavior only, as false. Human law doesn't govern the human heart.

I am not trying to "reduce" Christianity to obedience, much less obedience to a law governing only "external behavior." And I am suspicious of any significant distinction between men's "internal" soul and "external" actions.

Isn't happiness a yearning of the human heart? Doesn't virtue, a disposition of the soul, contribute to human happiness? Can't virtue be brought about through laws? And therefore, don't laws have a significant effect on what the heart endures?

Ralph, note how you are no longer disagreeing with Johnson. He didn't say that government can't affect the human heart, just that it affects it a little, and now you add, very indirectly.

Forget how smart you think you are for putting "internal" and "external" in scare quotes. There is a difference between doing x and doing x with love, per Saint Paul. And if you grant this then you grant as much of the "internal soul" and "external behavior" distinction as Thomas needs to say that human law doesn't govern one's mind, but only one's deeds.